Contents / Περιεχόμενα
2. Used to / Would
3. The Idiomatic Past or Unreal past
4. The Personal Passive consrtuction
5. Conditionals (without 'if')
6. Clauses of Purpose
7. Participles
8. The Perfect Infinitive with special finites
9. Clauses of Concession
10. Inversion
11. The Causative Have
12. Gerunds
13. Subordinate Clause Practice
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1. Time Sequence / Χρονική σειρά σε μια πρότασηSEQUENCE IN THE CLAUSES
PAST
When
After John {had eaten }his supper, he went to bed.
As soon as {ate }
PRESENT
When
Αfter John { has eaten } his supper, he goes to bed.
As soon as { eats }
FUTURE
When
After John { has eaten } his supper, he will go to bed.
As soon as { eats }
Προσοχή!!
Στην Ελληνική λέμε:
'Πήγαμε για καφέ και μετά πήγαμε σινεμά'
Στην Αγγλική λέμε:
'We went for a coffee and then (we went) to the cinema'.
or:
'We went for a coffee and later to the cinema'.
Δεν χρησιμοποιούμε τη λέξη 'after' δηλαδή δεν λέμε:
We went for a coffee and after (we went) to the cinema.
Ποτέ 'After' !!
Πάντα 'Then ή 'Later'
Exercise.
Put the verbs in the following sentences into all possible sequences. This will depend on the meaning. Take care in your choice of Simple Perfect Tenses.
1. As soon as a burglar (step) through the door, an alarm bell (ring).
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2. When the dog (see) me, it (bark) loudly.
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3. When a candidate (finish) his paper, he (give) it in to the examiner.
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4. After he (check) everything carefully, he (press) the switch.
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5. Visitors (can) remain until the bell (ring).
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6. John (not be) allowed to watch TV. until he (do) his homework.
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7. As soon as Philip (write) the book, he (send) it to his publisher.
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8. When we (reach) the top of the hill, we (take) a rest.
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9. Soon after Nancy (divorce) Brian, she (marry) Cecil.
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10. It (be) better to wait until the crowd (leave).
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Exercise.
Repeat the sentences from the previous exercise, in the Future Sequence only, AFTER the introductory clauses given below.
1. The bank manager explained that_____________________
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2. Tom was afraid that_______________________________
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3. The teacher explained that__________________________
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4. The scientist said that______________________________
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5. The nurse reminded them that _______________________
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Exercise.
Put the verbs in the correct tense.
1. The police inspector said that he (phone) me the moment he (have) any news.
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2. The lawyer explained that I (not receive) any of my inheritance until I (be) twenty-one years old.
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3. I was sure that Harry (pay) me back the money as soon as he (get) his salary.
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4. Ken asked me if I (lend) him my bicycle until his own (be) repaired.
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5. Mr. Wilde refused to discuss the matter before he (consult) his wife.
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2. ‘USED TO’ and ‘WOULD’Θέλω εδώ να κάνω μια μικρή τομή στη χρήση της λέξης use.
1. Μπορεί να είναι Ρήμα:
eg.
Mary uses two spoonfuls of sugar in her coffee.
Επομένως έχουμε: use - used - used (Ομαλό ρήμα)
2. Μπορεί να είναι Ουσιαστικό:
eg.
Tom does all his math problems with the use of a calculator.
Μικρή σημείωση:
Ως Ρήμα η λέξη use προφέρεται: yooz
Ως Ουσιαστικό η λέξη use προφέρεται: yoos
3. 'Used to' ή 'use to' και 'Would'
Η κλασσική χρήση του used to και του would είναι:
Τα χρησιμοποιούμε για να αναφερθούμε σε γεγονότα και πράξεις που συνέβαιναν στο παρελθόν και τώρα έχουν σταματήσει. Μια άλλη παράμετρος στη χρήση αυτών των δύο λέξεων είναι: Για γενικές καταστάσεις χρησιμοποιούμε το used to. Για προσωπικές/ειδικές καταστάσεις το would.
eg.
We always drank a gin and tonic as the sun went down.
We would always drink a gin and tonic as the sun went down.
The Romans wrote on wax tablets.
The Roman used to write on wax tablets.
Περισσότερα παραδείγματα:
When I was young I used to play with my toys.
When I was young I would play with my toys.
Δεν παίζω άλλο πια με τα παιχνίδια μου!!
We used to go for long walks in the summer.
Τώρα πια δεν πάμε για μακρινούς περιπάτους.
Εάν θέλουμε να δώσουμε έμφαση σε επαναλαμβανόμενες πράξεις ή συνήθειες στο παρελθόν πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσουμε το used to και όχι το would:
eg.
My dog used to sleep on the front door mat.
I used to smoke.
I used to be a nursing assistant.
I used to live in Bristol, England.
Ερωτηματικός τύπος:Ο ερωτηματικός τύπος είναι:
Did you use to play football when you were little?
Did you use to go out with Mary?
Did they use to drive away on weekends?
Didn't we use to go to play for the same football club?
Ερωτηματικός τύπος:
What make of car did you use to drive when when you were at university?
Αρνητικός τύπος:
I didn't use to play with my toys.
Αν χρησιμοποιούσα το would στην άρνηση θα σήμαινε κάτι άλλο:
When I was young I wouldn't dance in front of other people. (δεν είχα την διάθεση να χορέψω/ αρνιόμουνα)
be used to something
get used to something
become used to something
Το used to εδώ είναι επίθετο και χρησιμοποιείται για να δείξει ότι υπάρχει εξοικείωση με πράγματα ή καταστάσεις
eg.
After a while you get used to the city life.
He will become used to the noise from the passing cars.
I was used to the farm animals.
I'll never get used to going to work so early in the morning.
It took John a long time until he was used to driving at night.
Exercise.
Re-write the following sentences first with ‘used to’ then, if possible, with ‘would’.
1. Whenever my father went off to sea, my mother cried for days.
_________________________________________________
2. During his annual speech to the parents, the headmaster always invited donations
to the School Building Fund.
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3. Mary wrote poetry at the University.
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4. As children we always said our prayers before getting into bed.
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5. Whenever grandpa visited us he invariably complained that the young no longer
had any respect for the old.
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6. Mr. Brown drank heavily until his doctor forbade him.
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7. We always drank a gin and tonic as the sun went down.
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8. The Romans wrote on wax tablets.
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9. Once a month Dick wrote home to his mother.
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10. Philip always counted the change carefully when he paid the bill at a restaurant.
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Exercise.
Re-write the following sentences first with ‘used to’ then, if possible, with ‘would’.
1. Whenever my father went off to sea, my mother cried for days.
_________________________________________________
2. During his annual speech to the parents, the headmaster always invited donations
to the School Building Fund.
_________________________________________________
3. Mary wrote poetry at the University.
_________________________________________________
4. As children we always said our prayers before getting into bed.
_________________________________________________
5. Whenever grandpa visited us he invariably complained that the young no longer
had any respect for the old.
_________________________________________________
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3. THE IDIOMATIC PAST (Unreal Past)Στην Αγγλική, μερικές φορές, χρησιμοποιούμε τον αόριστο χρόνο για να αναφερθούμε σε μία " φανταστική " κατάσταση. Έτσι λοιπόν ενώ μιλάμε για το παρόν, ο χρόνος είναι στο παρελθόν, όπως στο β' υποθετικό λόγο.
πχ.
If my husband fell ill, I don’t know how I would manage.
Αν και το fell είναι στον αόριστο χρόνο εμείς αναφερόμαστε στο παρόν!
Αυτό στην Αγγλική γραμματική λέγεται The idiomatic past ή Unreal past.
Αυτή η κατασκευή εφαρμόζεται σε εκφράσεις όπως: if, supposing, suppose, what if, if only. Επίσης μετά το ρήμα wish και μετά την εκφραση I'd rather.
Μερικά παραδείγματα:
1. I don’t like aeroplanes. I’d rather travel by car.
(Εδώ θέλω να δώσετε ιδιαίτερη προσοχή σε αυτές τις κατασκευές:
I'd rather go home alone.
I'd rather had gone home alone.
I'd rather you ate out.
I'd rather you had eaten out.)
1. It’s high time these students (learn) their irregular verbs.
2. Suppose the police had come along, what would you have done then?
(Το suppose εδώ ακολουθείται από Past Perfect γιατί ήδη δημιουργήσαμε μία ερώτηση υποθετική στο παρελθόν.)
3. If only I owned a fast sports car. (Δεν έχω όμως ένα σπορ αυτοκίνητο)
4. Mary wishes she were fair haired.
(Χρησιμοποιούμε το wish για καταστάσεις στο παρόν όταν δεν είμαστε ευχαριστημένοι).
5. I wish I hadn't bought that garden table. It's too small.
(Χρησιμοποιούμε το wish για καταστάσεις στο παρελθόν όταν δεν είμαστε ικανοποιημένοι ή έχουμε μετανοιώσει για κάτι).
Σημείωση: Όταν θέλουμε να μιλήσουμε για καταστάσεις όπου κάποιος μας δυσαρεστεί και θα θέλαμε να αλλάξει στάση χρησιμοποιούμε το would+infinitive.
πχ.
I wish you would stop making that noise.
It's (high) time...
Αυτή η έκφραση επίσης ακολουθείται από unreal past.
It's (high) time we left. (Είναι ώρα να φύγουμε)
Exercise.
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2. Tom wishes he (study) harder. He can’t even understand the questions.
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3. Oh, children, I’m tired of making your beds. I wish you (make) your own.
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4. Supposing you (have) a flat tyre, what would you do?
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5. I’d rather she (come) last week. I’m very busy this week.
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4. The Personal Passive constructiona. THE IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTION
e.g.
It is said that Mr. Jackson stole the money.
b. THE PERSONAL CONSTRUCTION
e.g.
Mr. Jackson is said to have stolen the money.
Note and learn these corresponding forms:
They say that Tom cheats -- Tom is said to cheat
They say that Tom is cheating -- Tom is said to be cheating
They say that Tom cheated -- Tom is said to have cheated
They say that Tom has stolen -- Tom is said to have stolen
They say that Tom has been stealing. -- Tom is said to have been stealing
They say that Tom had stolen -- Tom is said to have stolen
They say that Tom will steal -- Tom is said to be going to steal
Exercise.
Re-write these sentences, using the Personal Passive Construction.
1. People think that this dog is dangerous.
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2. They believe the old lady is insane.
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3. Everybody knows that the water in the river is contaminated.
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4. People believe that Kennedy avoided a third world war.
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5. Customers find that the new model is well-designed and economical to run.
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Exercise.
Re-write using the Personal Passive.
1. Many scientists believe that the universe is expanding.
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2. They say that French wine is the best.
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3. Some people consider that the Russians have more dangerous weapons than the
Americans.
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4. Doctors claim that penicillin saved millions of lives in the last war.
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5. The newspapers say that the price of gold is going up again.
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Exercise.
Put into the Passive Voice using the Personal Construction.
1. People say that money is not everything.
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2. The police suspect that John Gibbs stole the money.
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3. They think that Dr. Brown is the best doctor in the town.
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4. Everybody knows that smoking causes cancer.
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5. The newspapers reported that President Kennedy had been assassinated.
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I am Fotini.
I was born on 19th June 1994.
I love basketball.
I also like salads!
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5. CONDITIONALS ( WITHOUT ‘IF’)
Όπως, ήδη γνωρίζετε, έχουμε αναλύσει, στο Grammar 1, τους τρεις βασικούς υποθετικούς λόγους στους οποίους το μόριο IF είναι βασικό στοιχείο. Βέβαια, υπάρχουν και άλλοι σύνδεσμοι και φράσεις όπως:
only if, unless, even though, even if, whether or not, providing/provided that, on condition that, as long as, και on the understanding that που εισάγουν υποθετικές προτάσεις.
Συνήθως, όμως, η πλειοψηφία των υποθετικών προτάσεων, στα επίπεδα Β2 και C2, σχηματίζεται με το IF.
Αναφέρω μερικά παραδείγματα:
If Mary comes, we will go for a walk in the park. (1ος τύπος, εκφράζει πιθανότητα για το παρόν/μέλλον)
If Mary came, we would go for a walk in the park. (2ος τύπος, εκφράζει φανταστική υπόθεση για το παρόν/μέλλον.
If Mary had come, we would have gone for a walk in the park. (3ος τύπος, εκφράζει φανταστική υπόθεση για το παρελθόν)
Όμως υπάρχουν και άλλοι υποθετικοί λόγοι χωρίς το IF.
Να προσέξετε, ιδιαίτερα, τις αντιστοιχίες των υποθετικών λόγων με IF και χωρίς IF.
If it rains, we will not go out. -------- Should it rain, we will go out. (1ος τύπος, εκφράζει πιθανότητα στο παρόν/μέλλον.)
If it rained, we would not go out. -------- Were to rain, we would not go out. (2ος τύπος, εκφράζει φανταστική υπόθεση στο παρόν/μέλλον.)
If it had rained, we would have gone out. -------- Had it rained, we would have gone out. (3ος τύπος, εκφράζει φανταστική πιθανότητα στο παρελθόν.)
Συμπέρασμα:
Οι λέξεις Should / Were to / και ο υπερσυντέλικος αντεστραμμένος δηλ. στην ερωτηματική του μορφή είναι χαρακτηριστικά κομάτια των τριών υποθετικών λόγων χωρίς IF.
Μερικά ακόμα παραδείγματα:
Should Tom pass his driving test, his mother will be very happy.
Were Tom to pass his driving test, his mother would be very happy.
Had Tom passed his driving test, his mother would have been very happy.
Εxercise.
Form these conditions in all three types without IF.
1. If anyone (call), I (pretend) to be out.
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2. If a storm (blow) up, we (be) in trouble.
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3. If they (raise) the price, we (not be able) to afford it.
_______________________________________________
4. If I (meet) any problems, I (ask) your advice.
_______________________________________________
5. If it (rain), we (get) soaked.
_______________________________________________
________________________________________________
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Amaryllis .. Marianthy .. Anastasia
Always happy!!
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6. Clauses of Purpose
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE
Στην Ελληνική για να εκφράσουμε σκοπό χρησιμοποιούμε τις λέξεις για να πχ.
Η Μαρία πήγε στον κινηματογράφο για να δει ένα νέο έργο.
Τα παιδιά πήγαν στο πάρκο για να παίξουν μπάλα.
Στην Αγγλική θα λέγαμε:
Mary went to the cinema to see a new film.
The children went to the park to play football.
Εδώ πρέπει να κάνουμε μια μικρή ανάλυση. Και στις δύο προτάσεις το υποκείμενο των ρημάτων είναι το ίδιο δηλαδή στην:
α. πρόταση η Mary είναι υποκείμενο του ρήματος went και του ρήματος see.
Με απλά λόγια:
-Ποιος πήγε στον κινηματογράφο;
-H Mary
-Ποιος είδε το έργο;
-Η Mary
Έχουμε, λοιπόν, το ίδιο υποκείμενο. Αυτό το ονομάζουμε ταυτοπροσωπία.
Και πάλι:
στην β. πρόταση τα παιδιά είναι υποκείμενο του ρήματος went και του ρήματος play.
Με απλά λόγια:
-Ποιος πήγε στο πάρκο;
-Τα παιδιά
-Ποιος έπαιξε;
-Τα παιδιά
Όπως είναι φυσικό και εδώ έχουμε ταυτοπροσωπία.
Τώρα θα εξετάσουμε τι συμβαίνει όταν τα (τουλάχιστον) δυο ρήματα της πρότασης έχουν διαφορετικά υποκείμενα πχ.
Ο δημοτικός αστυνομικός σταμάτησε την κυκλοφορία των αυτοκινήτων για να περάσουν τα παιδιά με ασφάλεια τον δρόμο.
The traffic warden stopped the traffic so that the school children could cross the road safely.
Εδώ τα δύο ρήματα έχουν διαφορετικό υποκείμενο:
-Ποιος σταμάτησε την κυκλοφορία;
-Ο traffic warden
-Ποιος πέρασε τον δρόμο;
-The school children
Αυτό το ονομάζουμε ετεροπροσωπία.
Επομένως στην Αγγλική για να εκφράσουμε σκοπό χρησιμοποιούμε ή απαρέμφατο (που εισάγεται με τις λέξεις in order to, so as to, to) ή μία δευτερεύουσα πρόταση εισαγόμενη συνήθως με τις λέξεις so that και may, will, can όταν το κύριο ρήμα είναι στον ενεστώτα ή μέλλοντα και might, would, could όταν το κύριο ρήμα είναι στον αόριστο.
Μερικά ακόμα παραδείγματα:
Ίδιο υποκείμενο:
Tom studied hard .... in order to .... pass the exam.
Tom studied hard .... so as to .... pass the exam.
Tom studied hard .... to .... pass the exam.
Ο αρνητικός τύπος είναι: .... in order not to .... pass the exam.
Διαφορετικό υποκείμενο:
Ken bent down. He wanted his small daughter to climb on his back.
Ken bent down so that his small daughter could climb on his back.
Σε μερικές περιπτώσεις ένα απαρέμφατο μπορεί επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθεί όταν το υποκείμενο είναι διαφορετικό.
He put some milk in a saucer.
He wanted the cat to drink it.
γίνεται
He put some milk in a saucer for the cat to drink.
Exercise.
Join these sentences using an Infinitive or Clause of Purpose.
1. Robert is studying hard. He wants to go to university.
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2. She rocked the baby’s cot. She wanted the baby to go to sleep.
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3. I have bought a net. I want to catch some shrimps.
________________________________________________
4. She puts pepper in the soup. She wants it to taste nicer.
________________________________________________
5. Dad has gone into the garden. He wants to mow the lawn.
________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
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7. Participles
Ένα ρήμα έχει τέσσερις μετοχές.
ACTIVE
PRESENT: playing
PERFECT: having played
PASSIVE:
PRESENT: being played
PERFECT: having been played
TYPE 1. SUBJECT 1 = SUBJECT 2
Μία μετοχή μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να αντικαταστήσει μία αιτιολογική ή χρονική πρόταση μόνο όταν το υποκείμενο του κυρίου ρήματος και το υποκείμενο της δευτερεύουσας πρότασης είναι το ίδιο.
e.g.
Tom (S1) felt ill. He (S2) went to see his doctor.
μπορεί να ξαναγραφτεί
Feeling ill, Tom went to see his doctor. REASON
e.g.
Tom (S1) took the medicine. He felt much better.
μπορεί να ξαναγραφτεί
Having taken the medicine, Tom felt much better. TIME
or
After having taken .......
After taking ......
Σημειώστε τη χρονική διαφορά μεταξύ μιας συμπληρωμένης πράξης και μιας τρέχουσας ή σχεδόν ταυτόχρονης πράξης.
e.g.
Taking quick aim, Tom pulled the trigger. but
Having taken careful aim, Tom gently pressed the trigger.
Exercise.
Connect the following sentences by using a Participle Construction.
1. I was going home. I met Jim
_________________________________________________
2. I arrived at the station. I found Andrew waiting.
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3. She was looking for her book. She found an old photograph of yours.
_________________________________________________
4. As I was signing the contract, I noticed there was a mistake in it.
_________________________________________________
5. While she was waiting for her date, she made a new acquaintance.
_________________________________________________
TYPE 2. OBJECT 1 = SUBJECT 2
Εάν το υποκείμενο της δευτερεύουσας πρότασης (ή πρώτης ρότασης) και το υποκείμενο της κύριας πρότασης (ή δεύτερης πρότασης) είναι το ίδιο, τότε μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε μία μετοχή αφού πρώτα μετατρέψουμε το προηγούμενο στην παθητική φωνή.
e.g.
The policeman told the old lady (O) of her son’s death. She (S) fainted.
The old lady was told of her son’s death by the policeman. She fainted.
Εδώ τώρα έχουμε Υποκείμενο 1 = Υποκείμενο 2
Having been told of her son’s death by the policeman, the old lady fainted.
or
On being told of her son’s death by the policeman, the old ............... .
Η πρόθεση on σε συνεργασία με ενεργητική μετοχή μας δίνει το as soon as (μόλις)
δηλαδή
On - Present Participle = As soon as
Exercise.
Re-write or join these pairs of sentences using the Passive Participle as above.
1. The policeman showed Mrs. Halliday the blood-stained coat. She gave a cry of horror.
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2. As soon as my father gave me my pocket money, I rushed out to buy a kite.
_________________________________________________
3. When the police arrested Finlay, he at once confessed to the crime.
_________________________________________________
4. After Jim had repaired the bicycle, it was as good as new.
_________________________________________________
5. His parents promised him a holiday in England, so Leslie worked much harder.
_________________________________________________
TYPE 3. The ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION
Οπου δεν υπάρχει αντιστοιχία μεταξύ του υποκειμένου ή αντικειμένου της δευτερεύουσας (ή πρώτης) πρότασης και το υποκείμενο της κύριας (ή δεύτερης) πρότασης, τότε η χρήση μιας μετοχής είναι ακόμα πιθανή, με την προυπόθεση ότι θα χρησιμοποιήσουμε το Absolute Construction ( απόλυτος γενική).
e.g.
As the weather was awful, we canceled our outing.
γίνεται
The weather being awful, we canceled our outing.
Σημείωση:
Να προσέξετε τη σειρά των λέξεων εδώ - η ρηματική μετοχή ποτέ δεν προηγείται του Absolute Construction, αλλά ακολουθείται ακριβώς η ίδια σειρά λέξεων όπως και στην αρχική πρόταση.
e.g.
There was no reply, so I assumed they were out.
becomes
There being no reply, I assumed they were out.
Exercise.
Re-write using the Absolute Construction.
1. The bus crews were on strike, so we had to walk to work.
_________________________________________________
2. There was no time to lose, so I booked a seat on the first plane to Zurich.
_________________________________________________
3. As the weather had improved, we did not need our umbrellas.
_________________________________________________
4. The hotel bed was much softer than my own and I found it difficult to sleep.
_________________________________________________
5. It was a Bank Holiday and the roads were absolutely choked with traffic.
_________________________________________________
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TYPE 4. RELATIVE PARTICIPLES
Οι μετοχές μπορούν επίσης να αντικαθιστούν συγκεκριμένες αναφορικές προτάσεις.
a. Defining Relative Clauses.
Εάν το ρήμα της Αναφορικής πρότασης είναι παθητικό ή αμετάβατο σε χρόνο διαρκείας τότε μπορούμε να
1. αφαιρέσουμε την αναφορική αντωνυμία
2. αφαιρέσουμε το/τα βοηθητικό/ά ρήμα/τα
e.g.
The man who was knocked down by a bus in University Street yesterday morning died in hospital last night.
μπορεί να ξαναγραφτεί
The man knocked down by a bus in University Street yesterday morning died in hospital last night.
e.g.
An operation which lasts four hours leaves the surgeon physically exhausted.
An operation lasting four hours leaves the surgeon physically exhausted.
e.g.
The government introduced a new law which increased the penalties for traffic offences.
μπορεί να ξαναγραφτεί
The government introduced a new law increasing the penalties for traffic offences.
b. Non-defining Relative Clauses.
Εδώ η διαδικασία είναι ακριβώς η ίδια όπως η προηγούμενη εκτός από εκείνη όπου το υπόλοιπο της αναφορικής πρότασης μεταφέρεται στην αρχή της πρότασης.
e.g.
Our village church, which was built in the 15th century, is still in remarkably good condition.
γίνεται
Built in the 15th century, our village church is still in remarkably good condition.
e.g.
Prince Charles’s tour of the Far East, which lasted one month, was the longest he has undertaken so far.
γίνεται
Lasting one month, Prince Charles’s tour of the Far East was the longest he has undertaken so far.
Exercise.
Replace the following Relative Clauses with Participle Constructions.
1. The bridge which has been built across the estuary cut miles off our journey.
___________________________________________________
2. The Firth Of Forth Railway Bridge, which measures almost two miles from end to
end, requires three years to paint.
___________________________________________________
3. The medicine which was prescribed by the specialist in London soon cured my
friend’s ulcer.
___________________________________________________
4. The five Indians who were caught entering the country illegally last week were
yesterday sent back to their country.
___________________________________________________
5. Miss Irene Scliva, who was elected Miss Greece ‘95 at last night’s Beauty Contest
at the Hilton Hotel, will represent Greece in the Miss World Contest next month.
___________________________________________________
Exercise.
Re-write using a Participle Construction.
1. I felt very tired so I went to bed early.
________________________________________________
2. There was no hope of finding the children in the dark, so the search was called off.
________________________________________________
3. As soon as he was told about the enemy attack, the Prime Minister called a Cabinet meeting.
________________________________________________
4. After he had discovered the cause of the trouble, the mechanic put it right and the
engine started at once.
________________________________________________
5. He considered the various possibilities and finally decided to spend his holidays
in Bulgaria.
________________________________________________
Exercise.
Re-write the following subordinate clauses using Participles.
1. As soon as John opened the safe, he saw the plans were missing.
_______________________________________________
2. After the officer had given them their orders, the soldiers set off.
_______________________________________________
3. Because the pond was frozen, the ducks had nowhere to swim.
_______________________________________________
4. Because I had spent all my pocket money, I could not go to the cinema.
_______________________________________________
5. While I was making toast, I burned my finger.
_______________________________________________
Exercise.
Re-write using a Participle Construction.
1. Mrs. Brown washed the clothes and then hung them out to dry.
_______________________________________________
2. Tom bought his ticket and then waited for the train to come.
_______________________________________________
3. There were no empty seats on the train so he had to stand.
_______________________________________________
4. When he reached the top of the hill, Dick stopped to enjoy the view.
_______________________________________________
5. As I had not had any breakfast, I soon began to feel hungry.
_______________________________________________
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8. The Perfect Infinitive with Special FinitesΤο τετελεσμένο απαρέμφατο ( Perfect Infinitive) έχει και απλό (Simple) και διαρκείας (Continuous) τύπο.
Simple > to have played
Continuous > to have been playing
Χρησιμοποιείται πολύ συχνά με τις πεπερασμένες λέξεις (μένουν ίδιες) MUST, CAN’T, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, SHOULD OUGHT TO, και NEEDN’T για να εκφράσει χρήσιμες ιδιοματικές ιδέες, σε σχέση με το παρελθόν.
1. MUST = I am sure that - Logical Positive Conclusion
e.g.
He must have been mad. ( I am sure that he was mad.)
Στην ελληνική λέμε: Πρέπει να ήταν τρελός ο φίλος μου για να κάνει τέτοιο πράγμα.
Στην αγγλική: My friend must have been mad to do a thing like that.
2. CAN’T = I am sure that (not) - Logical Negative Conclusion
e.g.
He can’t have been drunk. ( I am sure that he wasn’t drunk )
3. COULDN’T = I am sure that (not) - Logical Negative Conclusion
e.g.
He couldn’t have overheard us. I am sure he didn’t hear us. It was impossible for him to overhear us.
Στην ελληνική λέμε: Αποκλείεται να με είδες στο νησί. Ήμουνα στην Αθήνα.
Στην αγγλική λέμε: You can't (couldn't) have seen me on the island. I was in Athens.
4. COULD = It was possible but didn’t happen
e.g.
He could have killed himself (It was possible for him to kill himself but he didn’t)
Στην ελληνική λέμε: Θα μπορούσε να (να είχε γινει κάτι....κάνει κάτι κτλ. αλλά .. ΑΠΛΑ ..δεν έγινε...
σε αντιδιαστολή με το MIGHT που ΕΥΤΥΧΩΣ δεν έγινε.. εξηγώ πιο κάτω γι αυτό)
Παράδειγμα: Mary could have become a brilliant ballet dancer. (αλλά, απλά, δεν έγινε)
5. MAY = perhaps .... but I am not sure
e.g.
Tom may have gone to the cinema.(perhaps he has gone to the but I am not sure)
Exercise.
Put the appropriate special finites in the blanks.
1. I’m not in a hurry so you _________________________________ finished this work for today.
2. Young Timothy is crying again! He _______________________ fallen off his bicycle again.
3. I’m sorry. It’s too late. You __________________________________ come earlier.
4. We _________________________________ gone to the seaside today but it rained.
5. Someone telephoned while you were out.
Oh, it ________________________ been Mary. She said she would call me up.
6. The man _____________________ caught the 8 o’clock train because it had broken down. Therefore he ____________________________ caught the 8,25 train.
7. My bicycle is not there. My brother _____________________ borrowed it but I am not sure.
8. Only ten people are coming to the party. You ___________________________ prepared so much food.
9. You see, I passed the exam easily, mum, so you ________________________ worried so much.
10. This sentence is wrong. You _______________________________ used the Past Perfect.
Exercise.
Re-write using a Perfect Infinitive.
1. The accident was your fault. You didn’t signal that you were going to turn.
_________________________________________________
2. You were lucky. You didn’t kill anyone.
_________________________________________________
3. I’m sure I didn’t make a mistake. I checked the answer very carefully.
_________________________________________________
4. It was wrong of you not to apologise.
_________________________________________________
5. It was arranged for the Rolling Stones to come to Athens but they canceled the
show at the last moment.
_________________________________________________
Exercise.
Re-write using a Perfect Infinitive.
1. We had a wonderful time; you (be) there!
_________________________________________________
2. He thinks that it is possible that Shakespeare wrote it!
_________________________________________________
Shakespeare (not write) it because events are mentioned that didn’t occur until
after Shakespeare’s time.
_________________________________________________
3. I found this baby bird at the foot of a tree. It (fall) from a nest.
_________________________________________________
4. I used to visit her and I always wondered why she had those dreadful pictures on
the walls. It is possible that she liked them.
_________________________________________________
5. During the gale the captain was on the bridge the whole time. He (be) exhausted afterwards.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
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9. Clauses of Concession
CLAUSES OF CONCESSION (Παραχωρητικές προτάσεις)
Λέξεις και φράσεις όπως
although
even though
though
in spite of the fact that
despite the fact that
even if
however
no matter + (who, where, why, when, which, whose, how)
........though....
..........as.......
while
χρησιμοποιούνται για να δώσουμε μεγαλύτερη έμφαση σε μια αντίθεση.
Τα concessive clauses μπορούν να τοποθετηθούν στην αρχή μιας πρότασης ή εσωτερικά (στο μέσον) για να εκφράσουν κάτι το οποίον συμβαίνει κατά παραχώρηση και σε αντίθεση προς αυτό που δηλώνει το ρήμα της πρότασης από την οποία εξαρτάται πχ. Θα βγω έξω, ακόμη κι αν βρέχει. (Μπαμπινιώτης 2η έκδοση 2002).
Αν τοποθετήσουμε την παραχωρητική πρόταση στο τέλος της πρότασης, ο ομιλητής παραδέχεται ότι υπάρχει κάποιο πρόβλημα με το συγκεκριμένο επιχείρημα.
πχ.
I tried hard to cut down on bread, though it seemed impossible.
Περισσότερα γενικά παραδείγματα:
Αν και η Μαρία τέλειωσε το λύκειο πολλά χρόνια πριν, θυμάται πολλά πράγματα!
Although Mary finished school a long time ago, she still remenbers a lot of things!
Αν και είμαι νέος, γνωρίζω πάρα πολλά!
Despite the fact that I am young, I am very knowledgeable!
Αντί να πούμε:
Although it was raining, we enjoyed our walk.
Even though it was raining, we enjoyed our walk.
Though it was raining, we enjoyed our walk.
μπορούμε να πούμε
In spite of the fact that it was raining, we enjoyed our walk.
Despite the fact that it was raining, we enjoyed our walk.
Even if John is tired, he is always willing to help.
However tired John is, he is always willing to help.
No matter how tired John is, he is always willing to help.
Tired though he is, John is always willing to help.
Tired as he is, John is still willing to help.
Other examples:
However fast he drives, he won’t get there in time.
No matter who he is, I am too busy to see him.
No matter when he arrives, I want to see him at once.
Exercise.
Re-write as indicated and then suggest alternatives.
1. He may be stupid but he can’t believe the earth is really flat.
No matter _________________________________________________________
2. He tried hard but he couldn’t undo the knot.
However __________________________________________________________
3. He is very rich but he can’t afford to buy this villa.
_____ as _____________________________ _____________________________
4. You can take a taxi but you won’t get to the station on time.
Even if ___________________________________________________________
5. He was confined to a wheel-chair but managed to climb to the top of Mount Fuji.
In spite of the fact that _______________________________________________
6. I don’t care how much it costs. I am going to buy one.
No matter _________________________________________________________
7. Don’t take any notice of what he says now. He’ll agree in the end.
No matter _________________________________________________________
8. She may sing beautifully but I don’t think she will win the competition.
However __________________________________________________________
9. You may fail but you must not give up trying.
Even if ___________________________________________________________
10. It doesn’t matter where he is hiding. I shall find him.
_________________________________________________
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10. INVERSION
Type 1
Στην Αγγλική υπάρχουν κάποιες αρνητικές λέξεις ή φράσεις οι οποίες αν τοποθετηθούν στην αρχή ή στο εσωτερικό (στη μέση) τότε το ρήμα παίρνει ερωτηματική μορφή. Μερικές από αυτές τις λέξεις / φράσεις είναι:
hardly
only
never
rarely
seldom
on no condition
uner no circumstances
on no account
no sooner .... than
e.g.
I had no sooner got into bed than the telephone rang.
but
No sooner had I got into bed than the telephone rang.
You must not be late on any account.
On no account must you be late.
Rarely have I seen such chaos.
Only then will he realise the truth.
Type 2
Εδώ, στον δεύτερο τύπο, έχουμε δύο λέξεις, τις εμφατικές so και such, οι οποίες επίσης αντιστρέφουν το ρήμα από καταφατική μορφή σε ερωτηματική πχ.
e.g.
So surprised was he that he couldn’t say a word.
Such was the shock that she fainted.
Type 3
Στον τρίτο τύπο συναντούμε επιρήματα κατεύθυνσης (adverbs of direction). Μερικά απ'αυτά είναι:
in
out
up
down
round
over
back
forward
off etc.
αλλά μόνο όταν το υποκείμενο είναι ουσιαστικό και όχι όταν είναι αντωνυμία.
e.g.
The tree fell down with a crash.
Down fell the tree with a crash.
But Down it fell with a crash.
Exercise.
Re-write these sentences with the words in italic at the beginning.
1. He rarely made mistakes like that.
________________________________________________
2. They had hardly set out when they had a flat tyre.
________________________________________________
3. Their panic was such that many were trampled underfoot in the rush to leave the
building.
________________________________________________
4. Jack realises only now how much Jane loved him.
________________________________________________
5. This species of butterfly is seldom found in Britain.
________________________________________________
6. The traffic police had never seen such an unusual accident.
________________________________________________
7. I will only agree to marry her on one condition.
________________________________________________
8. Mason would not betray his country under any circumstances.
________________________________________________
9. The ski-jumper shot up into the air like a giant bird.
________________________________________________
10. Jill was so happy that she started dancing round the room.
________________________________________________
11. The Spitfires had no sooner climbed into the air than they spotted the enemy
bombers approaching.
________________________________________________
12. The cork came out with a loud pop.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
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11. The Causative Have
The Causative Use of ‘Have’
I have something done
Πρέπει να δώσετε ιδιαίτερη προσοχή σ'αυτήν την κατασκευή.
Λέμε στην Ελληνική:
-Έκοψα τα μαλλιά μου την τελευταία εβδομάδα.
Ερώτηση: Ποιος τα έκοψε;
Σχεδόν όλοι οι φυσικοί ομιλητές της ελληνικής υποθέτουν αβίαστα ότι τα μαλλιά κόπηκαν από κάποιον κομμωτή. Είναι δυνατόν όμως να έχουν κοπεί και από τον ίδιο τον ομιλούντα. Στην ουσία δεν μας ενδιαφέρει.
Στην αγγλική τα πράγματα είναι διαφορετικά.
Εάν πούμε, 'I cut my hair last week' εννοούμε ότι τα κόψαμε μόνοι μας.
Εάν πούμε, 'I had my hair cut last week' εννοούμε ότι κάποιος άλλος μας τα έκοψε (πιθανόν κομμωτής).
Αυτή η κατασκευή χρησιμοποιείται όταν θέλουμε να δείξουμε ότι μία πράξη δεν εκτελείται από εμάς τους ίδιους αλλά από κάποιον άλλον, δηλαδή εμείς ζητούμε από κάποιον άλλον να κάνει κάτι για εμάς. Τα ρήματα get, order ή pay είναι χαρακτηριστικά.
e.g.
I repaired my watch myself.
αλλά
I had it repaired (by the watchmaker).
Όταν μετατρέπουμε προτάσεις αυτού του είδους πρέπει να προσέχουμε στην επιλογή του αντίστοιχου χρόνου του ρήματος HAVE και να διατηρούμε τη σωστή σειρά των λέξεων..
HAVE = OBJECT - PERFECT PARTICIPLE OF ACTION VERB
e.g.
I am paying the decorator to re-decorate my house.
I am having my house redecorated.
Exercise.
Re-write using CAUSATIVE HAVE construction.
1. The gardener is planting some apple trees for me.
________________________________________________
2. My secretary has already typed the contract.
________________________________________________
3. Can’t the workmen build another floor on Mr. Wilk’s house?
________________________________________________
4. Tell the barber to cut your hair short.
________________________________________________
5. The photographer has not developed my holiday snaps yet.
________________________________________________
6. The hairdresser is going to dye Sarah’s hair blond.
________________________________________________
7. How often does the garage service your car?
________________________________________________
8. The dentist must take that tooth out if it hurts you so much.
________________________________________________
9. The dry-cleaners cleaned my suit for me last week.
________________________________________________
10. The baker delivers bread to their house for them.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
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12. GerundsΈχουμε συναντήσει γερούνδια ως:
1. υποκείμενα ενός ρήματος
e.g.
Skate-boarding can be dangerous.
2. αντικείμενα ενός ρήματος
e.g.
I enjoy water-skiing.
3. αντικείμενα μιας πρόθεσης
e.g.
He watched television instead of doing his homework.
I am fond of wind-surfing.
Ακολουθούν μερικά επίθετα και ρήματα με προθέσεις που συντάσσονται με γερούνδιο:
Keen on
Afraid of
Capable of
Tired of
Think of
Approve of
Be used to Apologise for
Congratulate on
Succeed in
Prevent from
Insist on
Interested in
Be accustomed to Believe in
Accuse of
Suspect of
Object to
Persist in
Look forward to
Dream of
4. Επίσης έχουμε δει ρήματα αρέσκειας και απαρέσκειας, αρχής και συνέχειας να ακολουθούνται από απαρέμφατο όταν πρόκειται για ειδική περίπτωση και γερούνδιο όταν πρόκειται για γενική κατάσταση.
e.g.
I like playing chess but just now I’d prefer to read a book.
He often begins day-dreaming during his history lesson.
As soon as he fell asleep, he began to dream of pirates.
5. Επίσης όταν το υποκείμενο του γερουνδίου είναι διαφορετικό από το υποκείμενο του κυρίως ρήματος, χρησιμοποιούμε ή το αντικείμενο ή τον κτητικό τύπο του ουσιαστικού ή αντωνυμίας.
e.g.
I disapproved of my son (my son’s) riding a motorcycle.
Σε μερικές περιπτώσεις η χρήση του γερουνδίου ή απαρεμφάτου μετά από ένα ρήμα, αλλάζει την σημασία του.
1. remember and forget
Με αυτά τα ρήματα, το γερούνδιο αναφέρεται σε μια πράξη η οποία έχει έίχε συμβεί πριν θυμηθούμε κάτι.
e.g.
That’s funny, I can’t remember putting my keys here.
She distinctly remembered having locked the door before she left but now it was open.
Don’t tell me you have forgotten signing this contract?
The Infinitive refers to an action that has or had not yet occurred.
e.g.
He remembered to post his wife’s letter.
I hope you won’t forget to phone the bank manager.
2. regret
Το ΄γερούνδιο αναφέρεται σε μία πράξη η οποία έχει ή είχε συμβεί.
e.g.
I now regret changing jobs. ( I wish I had not )
Το απαρέμφατο αναφέρεται σε μία πράξη η οποία στην οποία το υποκείμενο πρόκειται ή επρόκειτο να δράσει.
e.g.
We regret to inform you that your son has been killed in action.( we are unhappy to have to do so)
3. try
Όταν ακολουθείται από γερούνδιο το try σημαίνει πείραμα
e.g.
I tried mixing whiskey with vodka - with disastrous results!
Όταν ακολουθείται από απαρέμφατο, το try σημαίνει απλά προσπάθεια.
e.g.
I tried to climb the tree but failed.
4. stop
Ένα γερούνδιο μετά από το stop δείχνει ότι η πράξη τελειώνει.
e.g.
He stopped (talking) to take a drink of water.
Λίγα σημεία ακόμη που πρέπει να θυμόμαστε.
5. mind
Would ........... mind .......
Would you mind opening the window? = Please open it.
Would you mind my opening the window? = May I open it?
Would John mind picking me up from the station? = Will he please ...
Would John mind my borrowing his bicycle? = Will he object .....
6. fancy
Αυτό μπορεί να έχει διαφορετικές σημασίες.
a. Fancy meeting you here! = What a surprise to meet you here.
Fancy Tom passing the exam! = I am surprised he did.
b. I don’t fancy spending the whole weekend with the Joneses. = The idea doesn’t appeal to me.
7. feel like = desire, want
e.g. I feel like going for a swim.
8. can’t help = cannot avoid
e.g. I couldn’t help launching .
9. need and want
Με αυτά τα ρήματα το γερούνδιο έχει παθητική σημασία
e.g.
Your shoes need cleaning.
This coat wants mending.
Exercise.
Put the verbs in their correct form, Gerund or Infinitive.
1. Mr. Green now regrets (buy) a caravan.
________________________________________________
2. Can’t you get that stain out? Have you tried (use) turps?
________________________________________________
3. I’m sorry but I forgot (buy) a newspaper.
________________________________________________
4. On the way home I stopped (buy) a newspaper.
________________________________________________
5. I regret (do) this, Lawson, but I have no choice. Your work is not good enough.
________________________________________________
6. Please remember (turn) off the lights and (lock) the door before you leave.
________________________________________________
7. Mary fell from her horse while trying (jump) a fence.
________________________________________________
8. Look! He’s already forgotten (promise) me not to ride without hands.
________________________________________________
9. Do you remember (invite) the Johnsons, dear? No? Well, they have just telephoned to say they are on the way.
________________________________________________
10. Which do you prefer (do) this evening? (Ski) or (water-ski)
________________________________________________
11. One day he will regret (treat) me so cruelly.
________________________________________________
12. When you stop (behave) like a child, I’ll start (treat) you like an adult.
________________________________________________
13. Which would you prefer (do) this evening? (Go out) or (stay) at home?
________________________________________________
14. I haven’t been sleeping very well lately.
________________________________________________
15. Oh, really? Have you tried (sleep) without a pillow?
________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
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13. SUBORDINATE CLAUSE PRACTICE
Re-write or complete the following using the conjunctions given.
TIME CLAUSES
Exercise.
1. I went to bed and the telephone rang.
No sooner _____________________________________ than
2. He was chopping firewood and he cut himself.
While_____________________________________________
3. He must clean up the room or mother will get angry.
Before ____________________________________________
4. If he goes out, he takes his umbrella.
Whenever _________________________________________
5. The fire brigade arrived but the fire was already out.
By the time_________________________________________
PLACE CLAUSES
Exercise.
1. The policemen left the body where ______________________________________
2. The baby followed his mother wherever __________________________________
3. A boxer must hit his opponent where ____________________________________
4. The lovers agreed to meet where _______________________________________
5. He found his wallet exactly where ______________________________________
CLAUSES OF REASON
Exercise.
1. The weather was terrible, so they put off their outing till the following day.
(because)
__________________________________________________
2. My boss has raised my salary, for I have worked very hard this year. (because)
__________________________________________________
3. He didn’t feel at all well, so he called a doctor. (Participle)
__________________________________________________
4. We have no alternative, so let’s do it your way. (since)
__________________________________________________
5. There was no evidence to prove his guilt, so the prisoner was set free. (since)
__________________________________________________
CLAUSES OF RESULT
Exercise.
Re-write using: So ........ that / such ............. that
1. He looked very funny and everybody burst out laughing.
_______________________________________________
2. It was a great surprise and I didn’t know what to say.
_______________________________________________
3. This car travels very fast and you can’t see it.
_______________________________________________
4. The water is very deep and you can hardly see the bottom.
_______________________________________________
5. I have been very busy and I have not been able to repair your watch.
_______________________________________________
CONCESSION CLAUSES
Exercise.
1. The scientist knew how dangerous the experiment was but insisted on doing it.
Although/even though/in spite of the fact that ______________
2. In spite of the bad weather we enjoyed our outing.
Despite the fact ____________________________________
3. He may be intelligent but he still has to study like anyone else.
However ____________ /No matter ___________________
4. You may not feel sure of yourself, but don’t show it.
Even if __________________________________________
5. I try hard but can never improve my spelling.
However _____________ /No matter __________________
CLAUSES OF MANNER
Exercise.
1.John suddenly turned pale; He looked as if ____________
2. My wife was looking at me as if ____________________
3. It can’t be wrong. I did it exactly as _________________
4. The soldiers blew up the bridge as they ______________
5. Mrs. Rich treats her maid as though _________________
CLAUSES OF COMPARISON
Exercice.
1. We have spent much more this month than _____________
2. She never gets up as early as _______________________
3. The more you study the more ______________________-
4. The whole holiday cost me much less than _____________
5. Some pupils do worse in tests than __________________
CLAUSES OF CONDITION
Exercise.
1. Promise to drive carefully and you may borrow my car.
On condition that _________________________________
2. I’ll come to the theatre with you but I shall pay for myself.
Provided that ____________________________________
3. He agreed to lend me the money but he wanted me to repay him by end of the week.
n condition that __________________________________
4. Finish your homework if you want to watch television.
Unless _________________________________________
5. Don’t make any silly mistakes and you will pass your exam.
Providing _______________________________________
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE
Exercise.
1. He jacked up the car. He wanted to change the wheel.
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2. I put green tomatoes on the window ledge. I want the sun to ripen them.
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3. He used a net. He didn’t want the mosquitoes to keep him awake.
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4. Some men wear high-heeled shoes. They want to look taller.
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5. I turned off the torch. I didn’t want to waste the battery.
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For more help please contact: 2104223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
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