1. For - Since
2. Ο Μέλλων σε Χρονικές προτάσεις
3. The Gerund
4. Clauses of Result
5. Indirect Speech
6. Conditional sentences
7. Relative Clauses
8. Word order
9. Correlative Clauses
10. Verbs of Perception
11. Simple Present Perfect
12. Prepositions / Time and Place
13. Passives
14. By and the Perfect tenses
**********
My name is Catherine. My favourite actor is Jim Carrey. I like souvlaki. Dancing is what I love most! **********
1. For - SinceΣτην ελληνική λέμε:
Παίζω μπάλα επί μία ώρα (ή εδώ και μία ώρα ή για μία ώρα) .
Να προσέξετε το ρήμα παίζω πως αποδίδεται στην αγγλική.
Μερικές παρατηρήσεις εδώ!
Ποτέ play!! Πάντα have played / have been playing
I have played (have been playing) football for an hour.
Να προσέξετε τη λέξη for που χαρακτηρίζει διάρκεια.
πχ.
for three days
for six weeks
for a month
Τώρα το ίδιο παράδειγμα με άλλη χρονική αναφορά.
Παίζω μπάλα από το 2007.
I have played (have been playing) football since 2007.
Να προσέξετε εδώ ότι ο χρόνος παραμένει ο ίδιος αλλά αλλάζει, φυσικά, η λέξη since που δείχνει από πότε άρχισε η πράξη.
Περισσότερα παραδείγματα:
since September
since I was litlte
since Monday
since school
Περισσότερα παραδείγματα σε προτάσεις:
Mary has played hopscotch for half an hour.
Mary has played hopscotch since half past five.
ή
Mary has been playing hopscotch for half an hour.
Mary has been playing hopscotch since half past five.
hopscotch=κουτσό (παιδικό παιχνίδι)
Exercise.
Put in FOR or SINCE
1. We have been fishing _______________________________ two hours.
2. I have been working in this office ________________________ a month.
3. They have been living in France ____________________________ 1945.
4. He has been in prison ___________________________________ a year.
5. I have known that __________________________________ a long time.
_________________________________________________
For more help: 2104223164 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting 2104223164 end_of_the_skype_highlighting begin_of_the_skype_highlighting 2104223164 end_of_the_skype_highlighting begin_of_the_skype_highlighting 2104223164 end_of_the_skype_highlighting begin_of_the_skype_highlighting 2104223164 end_of_the_skype_highlighting begin_of_the_skype_highlighting 2104223164 end_of_the_skype_highlighting / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
_________________________________________________
**********
2. Ο Μέλλων σε Χρονικές προτάσεις
Όταν το κύριο ρήμα είναι στον Μέλλοντα και η χρονική πρόταση εισάγεται με κάποια από τις λέξεις:
when
until
as soon as
after
before
the moment
the next moment
once
by the time that
πχ:
When Tom comes, he will tell us what to do.
While you are putting up the tent I will collect some wood for the fire.
I shan’t leave his bedside until he has recovered consciousness.
τότε το ρήμα της πρότασης αυτής είναι:
> απλός ενεστώς αντί απλός μέλλων - χωρίς χρονικό κενό
> ενεστώς διαρκείας αντί μέλλων διαρκείας - χωρίς χρονικό κενό
> απλός παρακείμενος αντί μελλοντικός παρακείμενος - με χρονικό κενό μεταξύ των πράξεων
Exercise.
Put the verbs into the correct tense.
1. As soon as Diana (receive) the prize money, she will buy a fur coat.
________________________________________________
2. We must clean up the room before mother (return).
________________________________________________
3. By the time you (make) up your mind, it will be too late to go anywhere.
________________________________________________
4. The arrested man will not make a statement until he (see) his lawyer.
________________________________________________
5. We shall wait here until someone (find) us.
________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
For more help: 2104223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
**********
3. THE G E R U N D
Το απαρέμφατο είναι άκλιτος ρηματικός τύπος.
Στην Λατινική, το γερούνδιο είναι κλιτός ρηματικός τύπος και χρησιμοποιείται ως ουσιαστικό.
Στην Ελληνική δεν υπάρχει γερούνδιο. Αντ'αυτού χρησιμοποιείται το απαρέμφατο.
Θα προσπαθήσω να το απλοποιήσω όσο μπορώ:
Πριν από αρκετά χρόνια, στο εσωτερικό των βαγονιών του ηλεκτρικού τραίνου, Αθήνα - Κηφισιά, υπήρχε μια χαρακτηριστική επιγραφή που έλεγε:
"Απαγορεύεται το πτύειν"
δηλαδή:
Μη φτύνετε (στο πάτωμα των βαγονιών, φυσικά!) ή απαγορεύεται το φτύσιμο!
Η λέξη "πτύειν" είναι απαρέμφατο και σύμφωνα με αυτά που είπαμε πιο πριν γίνεται "το φτύσιμο" δηλ. ουσιαστικό.
Μια άλλη γνωστή φράση:
"NO SMOKING"
δηλαδή:
Απαγορεύεται 'το καπνίζειν' ή σε σημερινά ελληνικά 'το κάπνισμα'.
Το Γερούνδιο σχηματίζεται, όπως η μετοχή, αφού προσθέσουμε την κατάληξη 'ING' στο ρήμα για να σχηματίσουμε ένα ουσιαστικό πχ.,
‘swim’ is ‘swimming’.
Τα κύρια σημεία σχετικά με το Γερούνδιο είναι:
1. Το Γερούνδιο είναι ρηματικό ουσιαστικό δηλ. είναι και ρήμα και ουσιαστικό.
a. Ως ουσιαστικό μπορεί να είναι υποκείμενο ή αντικείμενο ενός άλλου ρήματος.
Swimming is a very healthy sport.
b. Ως ρήμα μπορεί να έχει το δικό του αντικείμενο.
I love swimming. Catching butterflies is cruel.
Exercise.
Replace the Infinitive with a Gerund.
1. To watch children growing is a rewarding experience.
_________________________________________________
2. To water-ski is not so easy as it looks.
_________________________________________________
3. Anything is better than to sit here doing nothing.
_________________________________________________
4. To park your car on either side of a pedestrian crossing is forbidden.
_________________________________________________
5. My favourite pastime is to collect train numbers.
_______________________________________
2. Μετά από ρήματα ‘αρέσκειας’ και ‘απαρέσκειας’ το Γερούνδιο χρησιμοποιείται για να δείξει γενική προτίμηση ενώ το απαρέμφατο χρησιμοποιείται για να δείξει προτίμηση για μια ειδική περίσταση.
I love watching T.V. but tonight I’d like to read my new book.
Exercise.
Choose the correct form of the verb, Gerund or Infinitive.
1. I generally prefer (ski) to (skate) but today I’d like (skate) for a change.
__________________________________________________
Which would you prefer (do) this morning, children? (Go) to the sea or (visit) the
science Museum?
__________________________________________________
3. Some young children hate (be) helped while others hate (do) anything themselves.
__________________________________________________
4. Oh, surely it’s not raining? It’s the children’s picnic today. I’d hate (disappoint)
them.
__________________________________________________
5. Yes, I do like (play) chess but just now I’d like (do) something more active.
__________________________________________________
3. Συγκεκριμένα ρήματα και επίθετα τα οποία πάντα ακολουθούνται από κάποια πρόθεση σχηματίζουν το ρήμα στον γερουνδιακό τύπο του.
I am very fond of cycling.
I am looking forward to seeing you soon.
Μερικά ρήματα με πρόθεση:
to think of
to apologise for to believe in
to dream of
to be keen on to be afraid of
to look forward to
to be capable of to be accustomed to
to accuse of
to prevent from
to suspect of
to be used to
to be tired of
to insist on
to congratulate on
to be fond of to succeed in
Εxercise.
Supply the missing prepositions.
1. John apologized ________________ standing on the fat lady’s toe.
2. I must remember to congratulate Mary _______________ passing
3. I didn’t know you were so fond ______________ walking.
4. I wonder why Jane is so keen __________________ meeting my brother?
5. At last he succeeded ________________ reaching the top of the greasy pole.
4. Αφού το Γερούνδιο είναι ρήμα μπορεί να έχει επίσης το δικό του υποκείμενο.
Αν το υποκείμενο αυτό είναι διαφορετικό από το υποκείμενο του ρήματος που προηγείται, τότε πρέπει να διαμορφώνεται όπως δείχνεται στα παραδείγματα:
I apologise for disturbing you. (Same subject)
I apologise for my son (my son’s) disturbing you. (Different subject)
I can remember opening the door but I can’t recall closing it.
I can remember you (your) opening the door but I can’t recall you (your) closing it.
Exercise.
Re-express these sentences using a Gerund.
1. I’m sorry I’m late, said John.
________________________________________________
2. I can’t wait for Christmas to come.
________________________________________________
3. Tom is not clever enough to pass this exam.
________________________________________________
4. I don’t think it is right to borrow or lend money.
________________________________________________
5. Rita has at last managed to get a job.
________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
For more help please contact: 2104223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick-@otenet.gr
**********
My favourite actor is Robert Pattinson.
I like kanelonia.
I play volleyball.
**********
4. C L A U S E S OF R E S U L T / Σύνδεσμοι αποτελέσματοςSO ……. THAT
The first two buses were so full that I couldn’t get on.
SUCH ……. THAT
The school play was such a success that we decided to produce one every year.
Σημείωση:
Το SO χρησιμοποιείται για να τροποποιήσει ένα κατηγορηματικό επίθετο ή επίρημα ή το much και many.
Τα παραδείγματα που παραθέτουμε είναι ίσως πιο διαφωτιστικά από την θεωρία.
e.g.
He was so tired that he fell asleep in the cinema.
The bus braked so sharply that many passengers fell down.
He had so much money that he didn’t know what to do with it.
Το SUCH χρησιμοποιείται για να τροποποιήσει ένα προσδιοριστικό επίθετο ή ουσιαστικό.
e.g.
They spent such a pleasant afternoon in the museum that they decided to go again the following week.
The children were having such fun that they didn’t want the party to end.
CLAUSE ORDER AND PUNCTUATION:
μία δευτερεύουσα πρόταση αποτελέσματος πάντα ακολουθεί την κύρια πρόταση και ποτέ δεν χωρίζεται από κόμμα.
Exercise.
Rewrite the following compound sentences as Complex sentences, using the subordinating connections
‘so ………. that’, ‘such ………. that’ as appropriate to form Adverbial Clauses of Result:
e.g.
Question. The case was very heavy, so she couldn’t carry it.
Answer. The case was so heavy that she couldn’t carry it.
Question. It was a very hot night, so nobody could sleep.
Answer. It was such a hot night that nobody could sleep.
Σημείωση. Σε μία σύνθετη πρόταση κάθε ρήμα πρέπει να έχει το υποκείμενό του ακόμα και όταν το τυποκείμενό του είναι το ίδιο.
e.g.
He was very late so took a taxi.
He was so late that he took a taxi.
1. The music was very loud, so we could not hear ourselves speak.
_________________________________________________
2. She was behaving very strangely, so everybody stopped to watch her.
_________________________________________________
3. The artificial flowers were very well made, so we thought they were real.
_________________________________________________
4. The polished floor was slippery, so he nearly fell over.
_________________________________________________
5. The rent was very high. I couldn’t afford to take the flat.
_________________________________________________
Exercise.
Now convert the following pairs of simple sentences.
1. into compound sentences
2. into complex sentences
In some cases more than one possible logical connection may be possible.
e.g.
Bert drank a whole glass of water. He was very thirsty.
Compound:
Bert drank a whole glass of water, for he was very thirsty.
Bert was very thirsty, so he drank a whole glass of water.
Complex:
Bert drank a whole glass of water, because he was thirsty.
Bert was so thirsty that he drank a whole glass of water.
Exercise.
1. The snow was very thick. The traffic came to a halt.
__________________________________________________
2. The schools were closed for the holidays. The parks were full of children.
__________________________________________________
3. The manager locked the safe. He dropped the key in his pocket.
__________________________________________________
4. Pat was picking fruit. A wasp stung her.
__________________________________________________
5. The church was interesting. Paul took a photograph of it.
__________________________________________________
Exercise.
Answer the following questions using complex sentences:
e.g.
Question:
How bad was the storm? (Ships not leave harbour)
Answer:
The storm was so bad that ships were not allowed to leave the harbour.
Question:
Did the rain spoil your outing? (rain all day/enjoy)
Answer:
Although it rained all day, we all enjoyed our outing.
Exercise.
1. Why did you agree to do the job? (pay very good)
_________________________________________________
2. When did you go to bed? (T.V. programme end)
_________________________________________________
3. When did Daphne cut her finger? (prepare sandwiches)
_________________________________________________
4. How clever was Brian? (come top of class)
_________________________________________________
5. How difficult an exam was it? (answer only half questions)
_________________________________________________
________________________________________________
For more help please contact: 2104223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
________________________________________________
**********
5. I n d i r ec t S p e e c hΥπάρχουν τρεις τύποι προτάσεων στον Πλάγιο λόγο
A. STATEMENTS
“Your brother is coming today” she said.
B. QUESTIONS
Is your brother coming today?” she said.
C. COMMAND
or
“Bring your brother today.” she said.
___________ . ____________
A. STATEMENTS:
Say / Tell
Όταν μετατρέπουμε μια πρόταση από τον ευθύ λόγο στον πλάγιο, κάνουμε μια σειρά από κινήσεις όπως:
1. Αν το εισαγωγικό ρήμα είναι SAY, τότε θα πούμε SAY.
Αν το εισαγωγικό ρήμα είναι SAY TO, τότε θα πούμε TELL.
Επομένως, “You’re late today,” she said
θα γίνει : She said ……. that I was late that day.
Αλλά, “You’re late today!" she said to him.
θα γίνει: She told him……. that he was late that day.
πχ.
Ευθύς λόγος: "I love my mother" Mary said.
Πλάγιος λόγος: Mary said that she loved her mother.
Ευθύς λόγος: "I can't drive a lorry" Tom said to Peter.
Πλάγιος λόγος: Tom told Peter that he couldn't drive a lorry.
Να προσέξετε:
Στις ερωτηματικές προτάσεις το εισαγωγικό ρήμα SAY γίνεται ASK
πχ.
"Where is my pen?" Mary said.
Mary asked where her pen was.
Επίσης, οι λέξεις που αποτελούν την ερώτηση εισάγονται από το If ή Whether εάν η ερώτηση είναι στον ευθύ λόγο ή από τις ερωτηματικές λέξεις when, why, κτλ., που ανήκουν στην αρχική πρόταση.
πχ.
"Can Mary drive a car?" Tim said.
Tim asked whether Mary could drive a car.
"Why are you laughing?" George said.
George asked why I was laughing.
_________________________________________________
* Προσοχή !! *
Πάνω από όλα η ερωτηματική λέξη στον ευθύ λόγο γίνεται Καταφατική στον Πλάγιο λόγο.
πχ.
“Is your brother coming today?” she said.
γίνεται:
She asked if his brother was coming that day. ΟΧΙ: She asked if was his brother coming that day.
και
“ Why were you late again yesterday? she said.
γίνεται:
She asked why he had been late again the previous day. ΟΧΙ She asked why had he been late .......... .
________________________________________________
Πίνακας αλλαγών στον Πλάγιο λόγο
The usual changes of tense are as follows:
* SIMPLE PRESENT / SIMPLE PAST:
I play / I played
* PRESENT PROGRESSIVE / PROGRESSIVE PAST:
I am playing / I was playing
* SIMPLE PAST / PAST PERFECT:
I played / I had played
* PROGRESSIVE PAST / PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE:
I was playing / I had been playing
* PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE / PAST PERFECT SIMPLE:
I have played / I had played
* PRESENT PERFECT PROG/VE / PAST PER. PROGRESSIVE:
I have been playing / I had been playing
* FUTURE CONDITIONAL:
I will play / I would play
can play ………….. could play
must play ………… had to play
may play …………. might play
Αν το εισαγωγικό ρήμα είναι στον Αόριστο , τότε συγκεκριμένες άλλες λέξεις πρέπει να αλλάξουν έτσι ώστε να αναφέρονται παρελθόν κτλ.
* Today - that day
* tonight - that night
* tomorrow - the next day or the following day
* yesterday - the previous day/the day before
* this - that
* these - those
* here - there
* next time - the next time
* last time - the previous time
Exercise.
1. “I can’t hear a word,” the writer said.
__________________________________________________
2. “This is a private conversation,” the young man said to the writer.
__________________________________________________
3. “I have just arrived by train”, said Aunt Lucy.
________________________________________________
4. “Captain Alison will set out at eight o’clock tomorrow,” he said.
__________________________________________________
5. “I didn’t enjoy the play last night,” my friend said to me.
__________________________________________________
* Να προσέξετε *
Στον ευθύ λόγο οι ομιλούμενες λέξεις από τον ομιλητή εισάγονται στον πλάγιο λόγο με το “that”
πχ. "We won't go away this year", said Mrs. Jones.
Mrs. Jones said that they wouldn't go away that year.
Όπως είδατε από το προηγούμενο παράδειγμα oι αντωνυμίες που χρησιμοποιούνται στον ευθύ λόγο πρέπει να μπουν, και αυτές, στην σωστή αναφορά τους.
Επομένως , “You’re late today,” she said.
γίνεται:
She said that I (or he, she, they, we) …….
____________ . _____________
Β. QUESTIONS:
Οι αλλαγές εδώ είναι παρόμοιες με εκείνες των STATEMENTS αλλά χρειάζεται περισσότερη προσοχή.
Δηλαδή όπως και στα statements:
1. Οι αντωνυμίες αλλάζουν
2. Οι χρόνοι αλλάζουν αν το εισαγωγικό ρήμα είναι στον αόριστο
3. Οι χρονικές φράσεις αλλάζουν καθώς και οι δεικτικές λέξεις (this).
αλλά
4. Το εισαγωγικό ρήμα SAY γίνεται ASK
Exercise.
1. “Can we buy it on installments?” said Mrs. Frith.
__________________________________________________
2. “Do you like it?” said her husband.
__________________________________________________
3. “Have you any small change?” the conductor said to the passenger.
_________________________________________________
4. “May I have a glass of beer?” said Tim to Pat.
_________________________________________________
5. “How is Jimmy feeling?” said the doctor.
__________________________________________________
_____________ . ______________
C. COMMANDS AND REQUESTS
Η διαδικασία αλλαγών εδώ είναι ακριβώς όπως στα Statements και Questions.
1. Οι αντωνυμίες αλλάζουν
2. Οι χρονικές προτάσεις και τα δεικτικά (this) αλλάζουν,
αλλά
3. Το εισαγωγικό ρήμα SAY
γίνεται:
Tell, Order, Instuct σε προτάσεις εντολών, διαταγών κτλ
και
Ask ή Beg σε προτάσεις με παρακλήσεις.
Σημείωση 1.
Αυτά τα ρήματα πρέπει πάντα να ακολουθούνται από έμμεσο αντικείμενο.
Αν δεν υπάρχει κάποιο στην αρχική πρόταση, δώστε εσείς ένα.
4. Το ρήμα εντολής στον ευθύ λόγο
γίνεται “TO" "INFINITIVE"’ απαρέμφατο
Σημείωση. 2 Το αρνητικό απαρέμφατο γίνεται: NOT TO
Σημείωση. 3 Αυτό το απαρέμφατο δεν αλλάζει χρόνο ποτέ.
Επομένως: "Bring your brother tomorrow", she said
γίνεται:
She told him to bring his brother the next day
και :
“Please bring your brother tomorrow!” she said
γίνεται:
She asked him to bring his brother the next day.
και:
“Don’t forget your book!” she said.
γίνεται:
She told him not to forget his book.
Σημείωση.
Αν η άμμεση εντολή περιέχει μία δευτερεύουσα πρόταση, το πεπερασμένο ρήμα αυτής της πρότασης πρέπει να αλλάξει όπως και στα Statements.
Επομένως:
“Don’t forget to return the book which you borrowed!” said the librarian.
γίνεται:
The librarian told the young man not to forget to return the book which he HAD BORROWED.
Exercise.
1. “Please don’t be late!” Mary said to Julia.
__________________________________________________
2. “Put this book back on the table,” Tom’s father said.
__________________________________________________
3. “Never play with matches again!” the fireman said to the children.
__________________________________________________
4. “Call me when the enemy attack!” said the general to his adjutant.
__________________________________________________
5. ‘Don’t disturb me unless it is something very important,” said my boss.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
For more help, please contact: 214223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
__________________________________________________
Anastasia and Catherine.
Always together!
**********
6. C O N D I T I O N A L S E N T E N C E S / Υποθετικοί λόγοι
Various other conjunctions and phrases such as "only if," "unless," "even though," "even if," "whether or not," "providing/provided that," "on condition that," "as long as," and "on the understanding that" can also introduce conditional clauses. The main focus of this paper, however, is on "if" conditionals.
Υπάρχουν δύο βασικά είδη υποθετικών προτάσεων:
1. OPEN or TRUE
Αυτές είναι, στην ουσία, χρονικές προτάσεις και το ‘if’ (εάν) εδώ σημαίνει 'οποτεδήποτε' (whenever). Με άλλα λόγια η υπόθεση πάντα πραγματοποιείται είτε αναφερόμαστε στο παρελθόν, παρόν ή μέλλον.
Χαρακτηριστικά παραδείγματα:
PRESENT: If Tom comes, he always helps.
PAST: If Tom came, he always helped.
FUTURE: If Tom comes, he will (always) help.
2. IMAGINARY or UNTRUE
Σ'αυτές τις προτάσεις ο ομιλητής υποθέτει ότι οι περιστάσεις δεν υπήρξαν στο παρελθόν, δεν υπάρχουν στο παρόν και δεν θα υπάρξουν στο μέλλον.
Χαρακτηριστικά παραδείγματα:
PRESENT: If Tom were here, he would help. (but he is not here and cannot help)
PAST: If Tom had come, he would have helped. (but he did not come and so wasn’t able to come)
FUTURE: If Tom came tomorrow, he would help. (but he is rather busy and so unlikely to come)
Συνδυασμοί Χρόνων:
TYPE 1. OPEN FUTURE: IF + PRESENT, FUTURE
If it rains , you will get wet.
TYPE 2. IMAGINARY PRESENT: FUTURE IF + PAST, CONDITIONAL
If it rained, you would get wet.
TYPE 3. IMAGINARY PAST: IF + PAST PERFECT, PERFECT CONDITIONAL
If it had rained, you would have got wet.
Exercise. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.
1. If Tom (catch) enough fish, he’ll cook them for lunch.
__________________________________________________
2. We’ll do some skiing if there (be) enough snow.
__________________________________________________
3. If you (park) here, the police will give you a ticket.
__________________________________________________
4. If Ralph (ask) her to marry him, Jane will turn him down.
__________________________________________________
5. These flowers will die if you (not water) them.
__________________________________________________
6. If Sarah (can) see us now, she would be terribly jealous.
__________________________________________________
7. The traffic problem in Athens would be solved if an underground railway system (be) constructed.
__________________________________________________
8. If Ann’s nose (be) not so long, she would be really beautiful.
__________________________________________________
9. If I (know) you were in hospital, I would have visited you.
__________________________________________________
10. If Sylvia (drink) that medicine, she might have died.
_______________________________________
______________________________________________
For more help please contact: 2104223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
**********
7. Relative clauses / Aναφορικές προτάσεις
Consider the following pairs of sentences:
A . The girl is from America. Britney Jean Spears is from America.
Β. She is acting in this film. She is acting in this film.
Και στις δύο περιπτώσεις Α, Β η δεύτερη πρόταση μπορεί να αποτελέσει μέρος της πρώτης. Αλλά θα είναι δύο διαφορετικοί τύποι αναφορικών προτάσεων.
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES (προσδιοριστικές αναφορικές προτάσεις)
TYPE A. The girl who is acting in this film is from America.
Εδώ η αναφορική πρόταση είναι αναγκαία για την αναγνώριση του κοριτσιού δηλαδή να μάθουμε ποιο κορίτσι εννοούμε. Αυτή η πρόταση ονομάζεται προσδιοριστική.
NON-DEFINING CLAUSES (μη προσδιοριστικές αναφορικές προτάσεις)
TYPE B. Angelina Jolie, who is acting in this film, is from America.
Εδώ το κορίτσι έχει ήδη αναγνωριστεί δηλαδή γνωρίζουμε ποιο είναι και επομένως η αναφορική πρόταση δεν είναι αναγκαία στην ταυτοποίησή του. Απλά προσθέτει κάποια πληροφορία. Δεν χρειάζεται άμεσα, είναι παρενθετική. Έτσι λοιπόν αποκαλείται μη προσδιοριστική.
Αυτή η διαφορά μεταξύ των δύο προτάσεων είναι σημαντική επειδή στις προσδιοριστικές προτάσεις:
1. ΠΟΤΕ δεν χρησιμοποιούμε COMMAS.
2. Μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε το THAT για ΠΡΟΣΩΠΑ και ΠΡΑΓΜΑΤΑ
3. Μπορούμε να παραλείψουμε το THAT αν είναι αντικείμενο.
Επομένως:
The girl who is acting in this film is from America.
μπορεί επίσης να γίνει:
The girl that is acting in this film is from America.
Σημείωση. Το 'That’ δεν μπορεί να παραλειφτεί εδώ επειδή είναι το υποκείμενο του ρήματος.
The man whom we saw tonight is from Crete.
μπορεί επίσης να γίνει:
The man we saw tonight is from Crete. (‘that’ = αντικείμενο)
The man we saw tonight is from Crete.
Σημείωση: If the antecedent (the word limited by the relative Clause) is the object of a preposition, then the preposition comes before ‘whom’, ‘which’, BUT keeps its original position both after ‘that’ and when ‘that’ is omitted.
Έτσι:
The man to whom I introduced you is from Crete
Αλλά,
The man that I introduced you to is from Crete.
The man I introduced you to is from Crete.
Σημείωση: ‘whose’ cannot be replaced by ‘that’ and cannot be omitted.
B. NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES (μη προσδιοριστικές προτάσεις)
1. We must always have COMMAS.
2. We can NEVER use THAT.
3. We can NEVER omit THAT.
Επομένως αν η πρόταση είναι NON-DEFINING υπάρχει μόνο ένας σωστός τύπος.
Πρέπει, λοιπόν, να θυμάστε:
WHO+ WHOM χρησιμοποιούνται για ΠΡΟΣΩΠΑ στις προσδιοριστικές προτάσεις και μη προσδιοριστικές προτάσεις.
WHICH is used for THINGS in DEFINING and NON-DEFINING CLAUSES.
THAT is used for PERSONS and THINGS only in DEFINING CLAUSES
Exercise.
Now join the following pairs of sentences using Relative Clauses.
1. The Greenwood Boys will be giving three performances. They arrive tomorrow.
_________________________________________________
2. The young man was very rude. He was sitting behind the writer at the theatre.
_________________________________________________
3. My aunt never tells anyone her age. She is an actress.
_________________________________________________
4. The tramp is called Percy Buttons. I gave him a meal and a glass of beer.
_________________________________________________
5. The writer did not send any of the cards. He bought them on the last day of his holidays.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
For more help please contact: 2104223164 / 6937483473 /
abc-nick@otenet.gr
**********
8. Word order in a sentence. Πρόταση / Σωστή σειρά λέξεων
Θα ξεκινήσουμε από ένα λάθος, βασικότατο λάθος που κάνουμε όταν θέλουμε να πούμε:
Αγαπώ πάρα πολύ τη μητέρα μου.
I love very much my mother.(Λάθος)
Μ'αρέσει πάρα πολύ ο κινηματογράφος.
I lke very much the cinema. (Λάθος)
I love my mother very much.(Σωστό)
I love the cinema very much. (Σωστό)
Η σωστή σειρά των λέξεων σε μια πρόταση είναι:
Υποκείμενο - Ρήμα - Αντικείμενο - Τροπικό επίρημα - Τοπικό επίρημα - Χρονικό επίρημα
Subject - Verb - Object - Adverb of Manner - Adverb of Place - Adverb of Time (SVOMPT)
πχ.
Anastasia cut badly this morning her finger in the kitchen. (χωρίς σειρά)
Anastasia cut her finger badly in the kitchen this morning. (με σειρά)
Exercise.
1. The pupil pronounced incorrectly the word.
_____________________________________________
2. Silently in his bedroom was doing Tom his homework.
______________________________________________
3. My father arrived home late yesterday.
______________________________________________
4. The soldier dropped carelessly his rifle on the ground.
______________________________________________
5. The sun shines in summer more brightly.
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
For more help : 210 4223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
**********
9. C O R R E L A T I V E C L A U S E S / Συνδετικά στοιχεία
"both...and," / "either...or," / "neither...nor," / "not only...but also," / "so...as," / "whether...or."
Μερικές φορές επιθυμούμε να δείξουμε ότι δύο διαφορετικοί άνθρωποι έκαναν την ίδια πράξη
ή
το ίδιο πρόσωπο ή πρόσωπα έδρασαν με δύο διαφορετικούς τρόπους
ή
έκαναν δύο διαφορετικά πράγματα
ή
έκαναν το ίδιο πράγμα σε δύο διαφορετικούς χρόνους
ή
σε δύο διαφορετικά μέρη.
Δίνουμε έμφαση σε αυτές τις διαφορές ή ομοιότητες χρησιμοποιώντας Correlative Conjuctions (συνδετικά στοιχεία).
1. Both ……………………………. and ……………………..
e.g.
Last night both Williams and Walker broke the world record.
Soon he could both speak and write French well.
Everybody finished both the précis and the letter.
They spoke English both fluently and correctly.
The police found blood both on his hands and on his clothes.
He visited his family both at Christmas and at Easter.
Εδώ πρέπει να προσέξετε δύο σημεία.
1. if there are two subjects, the verb must be in the Plural.
e.g.
Both John and Peter play for the school team.
2. Οι σύνδεσμοι πρέπει να προηγούνται των μερών της πρότασης που ειναι υπό συσχετισμό ( correlated parts ).
e.g.
Mary both worked hard at school and at home. WRONG
Mary worked hard both at school and at home. RIGHT
Exercise.
Να συνδέσετε τα ακόλουθα ζεύγη προτάσεων χρησιμοποιώντας συνδετικά στοιχεία.
1. My brother Paul can play the guitar. He can also play the drums.
________________________________________________
2. Cholera has appeared in Asia. It has appeared in Europe, too.
________________________________________________
3. My wife and I swim in summer. We also swim in winter.
________________________________________________
4. The thieves took her money. They took her fur coat, too.
________________________________________________
5. Our neighbours make a lot of noise. They also neglect their garden.
________________________________________________
2. Not only …………… but also …………
Not only …………… but ……..…………… as well
Αυτοί οι σύνδεσμοι δίνουν περισσότερη έμφαση στη δεύτερη από τις συσχετιζόμενες ιδέες.
Examples:
Nowadays not only the rich but also the poor enjoy many comforts.
They not only clapped but asked him to sing again as well.
My secretary knows not only shorthand and typing but also four languages.
The new machine works not only economically but efficiently as well.
Exercise.
Answer the following questions as indicated:
e.g.
Question: Did John only go to London? (Paris as well)
Answer: No. He went not only to London but to Paris as well.
1. Are you only learning typing? (shorthand as well)
_______________________________________________
2. Did the thief take your briefcase? (camera as well)
_______________________________________________
3. Does she only look after the children? (help with the housework as well)
_______________________________________________
4. Have you done only the washing (the ironing as well)
_______________________________________________
5. Must a teacher speak only slowly? (also clearly)
_______________________________________________
3. Neither ………………….. nor ………….
Αυτό το ζευγάρι συνδέσμων είναι ο αρνητικός τύπος του " both..............and".
Examples:
Neither Paul nor Pat came to the party.
She likes neither tea nor coffee.
My little brother can neither read nor write.
The teams played neither with skill nor with enthusiam.
We could reach him neither at his home nor at his office.
Because of the weather we had games neither on Monday nor on Tuesday.
As with ‘both …………… and’ the conjuctions must come directly before the correlated words or phrases. If the subjects are correlated, however, the verb will agree with the nearest subject.
e. g.
Neither my father nor my mother smokes.
Neither the letters nor the parcel has arrived yet.
A very common mistake is to double the negative, that is to use a negative verb as well as the negative conjuction.
e. g.
They didn’t go neither to the cinema nor to the theatre. (WRONG)
In English one negative cancels the other and the sentence becomes affirmative. There are two correct forms.
e. g.
They went neither to the cinema nor to the theatre.
or
They didn’t go either to the cinema or to the theatre.
Exercise.
Join the following pairs of simple sentences to form correlative sentences.
e. g.
Question: Pam doesn’t love you. She doesn’t love me, either.
Answer: Pam loves neither you nor me.
1. There are no bears in England. There aren’t any wolves, either.
______________________________________________
2. My uncle didn’t catch any fish today. My father didn’t , either.
______________________________________________
3. I haven’t seen him on T.V. I haven’t seen him in films, either.
______________________________________________
4. He doesn’t speak very clearly. He doesn’t speak very slowly, either.
______________________________________________
5. Mr. Davies hasn’t been to Spain. He hasn’t been to Portugal, either.
______________________________________________
_________________________________________________
For more help, contact: 2104223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
**********
10. Verbs of Perception / Ρήματα αισθήσεως
See, feel, smell, hear, imagine, realize, etc.
Βλέπω, αισθάνομαι / νιώθω, μυρίζω, ακούω, , φαντάζομαι, αντιλαμβάνομαι, κτλ.
Τα ρήματα αυτά στην ελληνική γλώσσα ονομάζονται ρήματα αισθήσεως.
Το ενδιαφέρον μας εδώ εστιάζεται στην επιλογή που θα κάνουμε όταν θέλουμε να πούμε :
Ο τερματοφύλακας είδε την μπάλα να μπαίνει στα δίχτυα.
The goalkeeper saw the ball gο into the net. (infinitive / απαρέμφατο)
ή
The goalkeeper saw the ball going into the net. (participle / μετοχή)
Ποια είναι η σωστή πρόταση;
Αν έχουμε δει όλη την πράξη δηλαδή την μπάλα να φεύγει από το πόδι του παίχτη, να διαγράφει μια πορεία και να καταλήγει στα δίχτυα τότε θα πούμε:
The goalkeeper saw the ball go into the net.
Αν, όμως, έχουμε δει την μπάλα να κατευθύνεται στα δίχτυα και τίποτε άλλο (μερικές στιγμές από την πράξη), τότε θα πούμε:
The goalkeeper saw the ball going into the net.
Exercises: Να συμπληρώσετε τις ασκήσεις στο πεδίο "σχόλια", αφού γράψετε τ'όνομα και το e-mail σας για να μπορέσουμε να επικοινωνήσουμε μαζί σας.
She heard the telephone (ring) again and again.
________________________________________________
I could feel the water (get) colder and colder.
_________________________________________________
The policeman noticed a dark figure (disappear) over the wall.
_________________________________________________
The old lady listened to the steps (come) up the stairs
_________________________________________________
Oh! You gave me such a fright! I didn't hear you (come) in.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
For more help please contact: 2104223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
**********
11. Present Perfect / Απλός Παρακείμενος
Ο Απλός Παρακείμενος χρησιμοποιείται για να εκφράσει μια πράξη που άρχισε στο παρελθόν και συνεχίζεται μέχρι τώρα:
Mary has worked as a nurse for nine years.
( ακόμα εργάζεται)
ή έχει σταματήσει αλλά δεν γνωρίζουμε πότε:
The Morgan family have had a lovely holiday.
ή μόλις έχει σταματήσει:
Peter has just finished writing his essay.He needs a break.
ΠΡΟΣΟΧΗ. Όλες αυτές οι πράξεις έχουν άμεση σχέση ΠΑΝΤΑ με τη στιγμή που μιλάμε.
Να προσέξετε αυτή την σημαντική διαφορά:
Στην ελληνική λέμε: Παίζω μπάλα τρία χρόνια.
Το ρήμα παίζω είναι στον Ενεστώτα.
Στην αγγλική λέμε: I have played football for three years.
Το ρήμα play είναι στον απλό Παρακείμενο!
Συμπέρασμα: Ο ελληνικός Ενεστώς αποδίδεται στην αγγλική με τον απλό Παρακείμενο.
Ακόμα ένα παράδειγμα:
Mr. Jones has driven for six hours. He needs a rest.
Ο κ. Jones οδηγεί επί έξι ώρες. Χρειάζεται ξεκούραση.
More examples:
Mary has watered the garden for ten minutes.
Η Μαίρη ποτίζει τον κήπο επί δέκα λεπτά.
The Stanleys have lived (have been living) in Chelsea since 1999.
Η οικογένεια Stanley ζει στο Chelsea από τo 1999.
_________________________________________________
For more help please please contact : 2104223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
**********
12. PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE
Χρονικές και Τοπικές προθέσεις
TIME
- When does he go to work?
- In the evening.
- When will he go away?
- At Easter
- When did they come back?
- On Monday.
Τρεις διαφορετικές προθέσεις, τρεις διαφορετικές χρήσεις.
Look at the following table. If you can, memorise it.
________________________________________________
IN : Years / Seasons / Months / Parts of the day
ON : Days / Dates
AT : Hours / Feast Days
________________________________________
Exercise.
Ask and answer the following questions as indicated, supplying the necessary prepositions.
e.g.
Question:
When-Tom-return-Paris? Friday.
Answer:
When will Tom return from Paris?
He will return from Paris on Friday.
(Verbs may be in Simple Past, Present or Future.)
1. When-your exams-begin? 8th June
____________________________________
2. When-Columbus-discover America? 1542
____________________________________
3. When-your-mother-do-shopping? The morning
____________________________________
4. When-Tom-play football? Saturday morning
____________________________________
5. When-trees-lose-leaves? Autumn
____________________________________
Exercise.
Add one or more time words or phrases at the beginning or end of these sentences.
1. __________ school starts __________ .
2. __________ it seldom snows __________ .
3. I was born __________.
4. __________ the war ended __________ .
5. __________ we arrived home ___________ .
PLACE
- Where is he going? He's going into the room.
- Where are they driving to? They are driving to Athens.
- Where is he staying? He's staying at a small hotel.
Υπάρχουν κι άλλες Τοπικές προθέσεις αλλά αυτές οι τρεις είναι εκείνες που μας δημιουργούν
προβλήματα συνήθως.
Here, a table will help. Memorise it if you can.
________________________________________________
MOTION : to / into / from / out of
REST: in (inside) at / outside
________________________________________________
This table shows that before you use a preposition of Place it is necessary to decide whether the sentence contains the idea of movement in a certain direction or not. If it does, then we must use a preposition of Motion:
INTO / A boy suddenly ran into the room.
FROM / Can you swim from this island to the shore?
OUT OF / The angry teacher sent the boy out of the room.
If it does not contain this idea of motion in a certain direction, then we must use a preposition of Rest:
IN / The train was still waiting in the station.
INSIDE / Nobody knew what was inside the box.
OUTSIDE / He usually parks his car outside the cinema.
AT / Let’s meet at the park.
NOTE: There is an important difference between IN and AT:
Some words need special care:
HOME : after verbs of Rest the preposition is AT.
e.g.
He spent the day at home.
After verbs of Motion no preposition is used.
e.g.
He hurried home.
NOTE: ENTER and REACH do not need a preposition.
ARRIVE is followed by either IN for large places or AT for small places.
e.g.
He soon reached the top.
Nobody entered the theatre that morning.
We soon arrived at the traffic lights.
Exercise.
Ask and answer the following questions as indicated, supplying the preposition where necessary:
e.g.
Question: Where - Mr. - Hill - fly - last week? Tokyo.
Answer: Where did Mr. Hill fly to last week?
He flew to Tokyo last week. (or: Last week he flew to Tokyo)
1. Where - Mr. Hill - stay? the King George Hotel?
_____________________________________________
2. Where - Mary - jump? the water
____________________________________________
3. Where - Frank - arrive - on the third day?
_____________________________________________
4. Where - Miranda - travel to? the West Coast of America.
_____________________________________________
5. Where - Jimmy - climb? the top of the tree.
_____________________________________________
Exercise.
Read out the following sentences, supplying the missing prepositions.
1. Since then the wreck has been lying ____________ the bottom of the sea.
2. Slowly the ship sank ________________________the bottom of the sea.
3. Thousands of tourists come _______ Greece _______ all over the world.
4. My brother is working ________________________ America at present.
5. How often do you go _____________________________ the cinema?
________________________________________________
For more help, please contact: 210 4223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
**********
13. P A S S I V E V O I C E
Η Παθητική φωνή σχηματίζεται με ένα από τα ακόλουθα μέρη του ρήματος TO BE δηλαδή:
am - are - is - was - were - be - being - been και την παθητική μετοχή του ίδιου του ρήματος.
Επομένως:
SIMPLE TENSES
The dog chases the cat. > The cat is chased by the dog.
The dog chased the cat. > The cat was chased by the dog.
CONTINUOUS TENSES
The dog is chasing the cat. > The cat is being chased by the dog.
The dog was chasing the cat. > The cat was being chased by the dog
PERFECT TENSES
The dog has chased the cat. > The cat has been chased by the dog.
The dog had chased the cat. > The cat had been chased by the dog.
FUTURE TENSES
The dog will chase the cat. > The cat will be chased by the dog.
The dog would chase the cat. > The cat would be chased by the dog.
INFINITIVE
The dog ought to chase the cat. > The cat ought to be chased by the dog.
The dog must chase the cat. > The cat must be chased by the dog.
ΠΡΟΣΟΧΗ:
1. Μην αλλάζετε χρόνο
2. Μην αναφέρετε από ποιον κτλ. έγινε η πράξη εάν είναι αυτονόητο ή αντωνυμία ή αόριστο.
e.g.
Someone has stolen my car.
My car has been stolen.
The police arrested the thief.
The thief was arrested.
I will finish the work before six o’clock.
The work will be finished before six o’clock.
3. Όταν έχουμε ρήματα που δέχονται δύο αντικείμενα το προσωπικό έμμεσο αντικείμενο γίνεται το υποκείμενο στην Παθητική φωνή.
e.g.
They gave him a prize.
He was given a prize
Examples of two-object verbs.
Offer, tell, promise, give, pay, show, lend, ask, bring, hand, etc.
4. Take special care with the continuous tenses.
Exercise.
1. The snow will spoil my flowers.
_________________________________________________
2. Galleti scored the only goal.
_________________________________________________
3. Our teacher is showing us some pictures.
_________________________________________________
4. We couldn’t hear the actors.
_________________________________________________
5. They have sold all the tickets.
_________________________________________________
Exercise.
Turn into the Passive Voice.
1. The cook never spoils the soup.
_________________________________________________
2. They have eaten all the food.
_________________________________________________
3. They built a new school in our village last year.
_________________________________________________
4. The gardener is planting new trees in our garden.
_________________________________________________
5. A friend of mine has repaired the clavichord.
_________________________________________________
T w o - o b j e c t V e r b s
1. She promised the finder a reward.
_________________________________________________
2. She showed her husband her new hat.
_________________________________________________
3. The stranger offered me a cigarette.
_________________________________________________
4. He was giving us some advice.
_________________________________________________
5. You must give the waiter a tip.
_________________________________________________
Exercise.
Put into the Passive Voice.
1. They are painting the school railings green.
_________________________________________________
2. Bill sent me a copy of his new book.
_________________________________________________
3. Didn’t she offer you a drink?
_________________________________________________
4. A policeman was controlling the traffic while they were repairing the traffic lights.
_________________________________________________
5. The teacher is showing his pupil how to do the Passive Voice.
_________________________________________________
6. Her parents promised Mary a bicycle if she passed her exams.
_________________________________________________
7. They will give the winner a free holiday in Paris.
_________________________________________________
8. People are taking more photographs than ever before.
_________________________________________________
9. John’s father is giving him a driving lesson.
_________________________________________________
10. We have collected over one million drachmas for the orphans of Cyprus.
_________________________________________________
________________________________________________
For more help please contact: 2104223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
14. By and the Perfect Tenses
With the preposition of time BY the main verb must be in a Perfect tense:
Past Perfect, Present Perfect or Future Perfect according to the meaning.
e.g.
Last night I had finished my homework by 7 o’clock.
I have usually finished my homework by 7 o’clock every night.
I hope that I shall have finished my homework by 6 o’clock tomorrow night because I want to go to the cinema.
Exercise.
Put the verbs into the appropriate Perfect Tense.
1. My wife always takes so long to get ready that by the time we reach the cinema the film usually (start).
_________________________________________________
2. If you don’t hurry, dear, the film (start) by the time we get to the cinema.
_________________________________________________
3. We missed the beginning of the film last night because by the time we got to the cinema the film (already start).
_________________________________________________
4. The first rain (usually fall) by the end of September.
_________________________________________________
5. By the end of this month we (save) up enough to buy a car.
_________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
For more help please contact: 2104223164 / 6937483473
abc-nick@otenet.gr
**********
.
Δεν υπάρχουν σχόλια:
Δημοσίευση σχολίου